Museums and virtual technology

Introduction Since the advent of civilization, human beings have been interested in collecting, keeping and displaying things hence giving rise to the concept of museums. (Drurie,1997, p. 30). Museums have been termed as having historically been repositories where real physical objects that existed many years ago are kept.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on Museums and virtual technology specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More They have taken it upon themselves to collect, preserve and explain these things for the current and future generations to have knowledge of their culture. Museums have perfected this role to the extent that they have been deemed mausoleums. They preserve even the dustiest glasses where they store ancient artifacts (Mareovic,1998,p. 71). Changes Occasioned by Technology However, life today has changed due to technology where everything has been digitized leading to changes in all spheres of life . Technology has taken the centre stage and anybody who does not comply with the current trends of technology is seen as lacking enlightenment. Business organizations and government sectors have embraced technology to solve all problems (Lancaster Reynolds, 1999). Technology is applied everywhere whenever problems arise and forms the illusion that there is no problem that will fail to get a solution. The arrival of virtual technology has led to the perception that in due course, museums will be moribund or worse still be converted into archives. The reason behind this is that people are nowadays looking for information as opposed to materials and other artifacts (Bowen et al, 1998). This proposition is not common among all the people because some people have a feeling that original objects will be in constant demand when internet users discover that they are important as part of the culture of a people. Technology can still help us discover new relations among different things such as information, experience of people and their general reaction to different issues (Teather, 1998). The relationship between the view of a museum as an archive for objects and the same museum as a place where information is available should strike a balance. Such a balance will be important in moderating the debate of the position of museums with the advent of virtual technology. Conclusion Museums have a mandate of displaying collections in an appealing and educational manner if they are to remain relevant. The digital technology can be very useful in enhancing this mission on condition that there is no indiscriminate use and users are aware of their goals.Advertising Looking for term paper on other technology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More They should know what they want to achieve and how they will achieve it (Lancaster Reynolds, 2002; Rentschler, 1999). The internet provides real cultural chances for museums alongside posing other challenges that must be put into consideration before making any decision (Sylvester, 2001). References Bowen, J., Bennett, J., Coh, H. Johnson, J. (1998) ‘Virtual visits to virtual museums’, Proceedings of Museums and the Web Conference, Toronto, Canada [online] Available www.InfoTrac One File. A17976679.. Lancaster, G. Reynolds, P. 1999, Introduction to marketing: a step-by-step guide to all the tools of marketing, London, Elsevier Press. Lancaster, G. Reynolds, P. (2002) Marketing made simple. Oxford, Elsevier Press. Mareovic, I. (1998) Virtual museums: The challenge of Globalization in Musicology and Globalization. University of Canberra Press, Canberra. Rentschler, R. (1999) Innovative arts marketing. St Leonards NSW: Allen Unwin. Sylvester, R. (2001) Creating web-accessible databases: case studies for libraries, museums and other nonprofits Information Today, Medford, N.J.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on Museums and vi rtual technology specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Teather, L. (1998) A museum is a museum †¦ or is it? Exploring Musicology and the web, Archives and Museum Informatics [online] available from http://www.archimuse.com/index.html . This term paper on Museums and virtual technology was written and submitted by user L1ndsey to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Water Pollution and Global Warming Essay Example

Water Pollution and Global Warming Essay Example Water Pollution and Global Warming Paper Water Pollution and Global Warming Paper Essay Topic: Water pollution As a result it plays important roles in ecosystem support, economic development, cultural values and community well-being. Dozens of times a day those of us who live in the industrialized nations of the world enjoy a blessing denied to 75 percent of the world population: abundant supplies of clean water. But water is essential for life on earth. No known organisms can live without it. For centuries water has been used as a dumping ground for human sewage and industrial wastes. Added to them are the materials leached out and transported from and by water percolating through the soil and running off its surface to aquatic ecosystems. Water pollution is degradation of water quality. Any physical, chemical, or biological change in water quality that adversely affects living organisms or makes water unsuitable for desired use can be considered pollution. Thus the term water pollution refers to Water contamination by a variety of chemical substances or transportation caused by several nutrients and fertilizers. Southwest, 1 976 U. S. Department of Health Education and Welfare defines water pollution as The adding to water of any substance or he changing of waters physical and chemical characteristics in any way which interferes with its use of legitimate purposes. At present, water pollution is a major global problem. Everyday many people are dying for water pollution. Now water pollution becomes the leading cause of death diseases. 3 1. 2 Sources of Water Pollution : There are many sources of water pollution. But before knowing that, we need to know that what are the sources of water, and then we will understand how they are becoming polluted. We get water from two sources Surface Water Ground Water Surface Water is fresh water mound on Earths surface in streams and rivers, lakes, ponds, reservoirs. Surface waters are replenished by the runoff of precipitation from the land and are therefore considered a renewable, although finite resource. Ground Water refers to the fresh water under Earths surface that is stored in aquifers. This water originates as rain or melting snow that seeps into the soil and finds its way down through cracks and spaces in sand, gravel or rock until it is stopped by an impenetrable layer, there it accumulates as groundwater. Surface water and groundwater have often been studied and managed as operate resources, although they are interrelated. Surface water seeps through the soil and becomes groundwater. Conversely, groundwater can also feed surface water sources. Sources of surface water pollution are generally grouped into two categories based on their origin. Point Sources Nons of sources in this category include discharges from a sewage treatment plant, a factory, or a city storm drain. Point source water pollution re easily findable. So, people can easily control them. Non-point source pollution refers to diffuse contamination that does not originate from a single discrete source. Non-point source pollution is often the cumulative effect of small amounts of contaminants gathered from a large area. A common example is the leaching out of nitrogen compounds from fertilized agricultural lands. Nutrient runoffs in storm water from sheet flow over an agricultural field or a forest are also cited as examples of Non-point source pollution. 4 Surface Water Pollution : Surface water bodies are extensively used for espousal of untreated industrial wastes and this is one of the main sources of surface water pollution. Surface water pollution is caused by C Domestic Waste : Water pollution Of domestic is mainly caused by sewage. Sewage is defined as the waterborne waste derived from home, animal or food processing plants and includes human excreta, soaps, organic materials, different types of solids, waste food, oil detergents, paper and cloth. They are the largest group of water pollutants. Water pollution is caused by uncontrolled dumping of waste collected from villages, towns and cities into ponds, streams, lakes and rivers. C] Industrial Effluent : The discharge of industrial effluents into the water body caused water pollution. These effluents contain a wide variety of inorganic and organic substances such as oils, greases, plastics, plasticizer, metallic wastes, suspended solids, phenols, pesticides, heavy metals and acids. Major industries of the country are located on or near the coastline or riversides. Organic substances deplete the oxygen content. Inorganic substances render the water unfit for drinking and other purposes. Acids and alkalis adversely effect the growth of fish and other aquatic organisms. Oil and other greasy substances interfere with the self purification mechanism of water. Urban runoff : Urban runoff is surface runoff of rainwater created by arbitration. This runoff is one of the major sources of water pollution in many urban communities worldwide. The porous and varied terrain of natural landscapes like forests, wetlands, and grasslands trap rainwater and snowbell and allow it to slowly filter into the ground. Runoff tends to reach receiving waters gradually. In contrast, nonporous urban landscapes like roads, bridges, parking lots, and buildings dont let runoff slowly percolate into the ground Arbitration also increases the variety and amount of pollutants transported to receiving waters. Sediment from development and new construction; Oil, grease, and toxic chemicals from automobiles; nutrients and pesticides from turf management and gardening; viruses and bacteria from failing septic systems; road salts; and heavy metals are examples of pollutants generated in urban areas. Sediments and solids constitute the largest volume of pollutant loads to receiving waters in urban areas. Ã'Å¡ Agricultural runoff : Water pollution can be caused by agricultural wastes such as fertilizers, pesticides, soil additives and animal wastes that are washed off from the land to the aquatic system through irrigation, rainfall and leaching. Oil pollution : There are about 15 million water crafts on navigable waters throughout the world. Their combined waste discharges are equivalent to a city with a population of 2,000,000. Thus oil pollution, an oxygen demanding Waste, is of concern not only from sensational major spills from ships and offshore drilling rigs but also from small spills and cleaning operations. Al Chemical Use : Industrial and agricultural work involves the use of many different chemicals that can run-off into water and pollute it. It can also cause health hazards to human body and many animals and fishes are dying for these chemicals. CLC Thermal Pollution : An increase in the optimum water temperature by industrial processes (steel factories, electric power houses and atomic power plants) may be called as thermal pollution. Many industries generate their own power and use water to cool their generators. This hot water is released into the system from where it was drawn, causing a warming trend of surface waters. Fifth system is poorly flushed, a permanent increase in the temperature may result. However, if the water is released into he well flushed systems, permanent increase in temperature does not occur. Many organisms are killed instantly by the hot water resulting into a high mortality. It may bring other disturbance in the ecosystem. The eggs of fish may hatch early or fail to hatch at all. It may lead to unplanned migration of aquatic animals. D Sediments : Sediment is defined as particles derived from soil or rocks that are transported by water or wind. The erosion of land surfaces and stream banks produces sediment. Sediment threatens water supplies and recreation and cause harm to plant and fish communities. Sediment can also be discharged from multiple different sources. Sources include construction sites agricultural fields, stream banks, and highly disturbed areas. D Salinity Intrusion : Saltwater intrusion is a major problem in coastal regions all over the world, as it threatens the health and possibly lives Of many people who live in these areas. It increases the salinity of groundwater and water may become unsuitable for human use. Colonization of groundwater is considered a special category of pollution that threatens groundwater resources, because mixing a small quantity of saltwater in the rainwater makes freshwater unsuitable and can result in abandonment of freshwater supply. CLC Accidental Spills of Chemicals : Accidental spills of environmentally harmful materials can happen anywhere and anytime, polluting land and water. Even echo-friendly cleaners and chemicals can harm the fish, plants and insects in our streams and harbors, if they are washed into stemware drains. 6 Ground Water Pollution : A lot of the Earths water is found underground in soil or under rock structures called aquifers. Humans often use aquifers as a means to obtain drinking water, and build wells to access it. When this water becomes polluted it is called groundwater pollution. Groundwater pollution is often caused by pesticide contamination from the soil, this can infect Our drinking water and cause huge problems. Ground water pollution caused BBC Waste disposal site : Domestic and industrial wastes are collected to dispose them in a place. There are many chemicals which are found in these wastes. The places where these waste are disposed become polluted. If the place has a leak and it lead to the nearby river, then by the leaks, the chemicals go to the river and make the river polluted. D Pesticides : Run-off from farms, skyward, and golf courses contain pesticides such as EDT that in turn contaminate the water. Leech ate from landfill sites is another major contaminating source. Its effects on the ecosystems and health are endocrine and reproductive damage in wildlife. Groundwater is susceptible to contamination, as pesticides are mobile in the soil. It is a matter of concern as these chemicals are persistent in the soil and water. L] Sewage : Untreated or inadequately treated municipal sewage is a major source of groundwater and surface water pollution in the developing countries. The organic material that s discharged with municipal waste into the watercourses uses substantial oxygen for biological degradation thereby upsetting the ecological balance of rivers and lakes. Sewage also carries microbial pathogens that are the cause of the spread of disease. C Nutrients : Domestic waste water, agricultural run- off, and industrial effluents contain phosphorus and nitrogen, fertilizer run- off, manure from livestock operations, which increase the level of nutrients in water bodies and can cause transportation in the lakes and rivers and continue on to the coastal areas. The nitrates come mainly from the fertilizer hat is added to the fields. Excessive use of fertilizers cause nitrate contamination Of groundwater, with the result that nitrate levels in drinking water is far above the safety levels recommended. Good agricultural practices can help in reducing the amount of nitrates in the soil and thereby lower its content in the water. 7 Acidification : Acidification of surface water, mainly lakes and reservoirs, is one of the major environmental impacts of transport over long distance of air pollutants such as sulfur dioxide from power plants, other heavy industry such as steel plants, and motor vehicles. This problem is more severe in the US and in parts of Europe. C] Synthetic organics : Many of the 100 DO synthetic compounds in use today are found in the aquatic environment and accumulate in the food chain. Persistent organic pollutants represent the most harmful element for the ecosystem and for human health. For example, industrial chemicals and agricultural pesticides. These chemicals can accumulate in fish and cause serious damage to human health. Where pesticides are used on a large-scale, groundwater gets contaminated and this leads to the chemical contamination of drinking water. Ã'Å¡ Arsenic Problem : Most arsenic enters water supplies either from natural deposits in the earth or from industrial and agricultural pollution. Arsenic is a natural element of the earths crust. It is used in industry and agriculture and for other purposes. It also is a byproduct of copper smelting, mining and coal burning. C Suspended Matter : Some pollutants do not dissolve in water as their molecules are too big to mix between the water molecules. This material is called particulate matter and can often be a cause of water pollution. The suspended particles eventually settle and cause thick silt at the bottom. This s harmful to marine life that lives on the floor of rivers or lakes. Biodegradable substances are often suspended in water and can cause problems by increasing the amount of anaerobic microorganisms present. Toxic chemicals suspended in water can be harmful to the development and survival of aquatic life. 8 1. 3 Common Contaminants of Water Pollution : There are some contaminants of water pollution. They are C Infectious Agents : Disease causing agents or pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, protozoa, parasites. These come from raw sewage and animal waste and they may be responsible for 80% of the asses in developing countries. CLC Oxygen demanding wastes : Reduce Dissolved Oxygen level in the water and affect aquatic life. Sewage, animal manure or biodegradable organic wastes are that type of waste. 0 Inorganic chemicals : Water-soluble acids, toxic compound, salt and metals are the inorganic chemicals. They make water unfit to consume and use for irrigation. Also can harm organisms and cause material corrosion. D Organic chemicals : Organic chemicals are petroleum products, oil, gasoline, plastics, pesticides, solvents, detergents. Presence of organic chemicals in water cause health kiss to humans and other organisms. Ã'Ëœ Plant nutrients : Nitrates, phosphates, ammonium from fertilizers are plant nutrients. Excessive algal and plant growth lower the oxygen levels when they decompose. Sediment : Sediments are bad for aquatic animals. Mud, silt, sand are the example. Sediment disrupts photosynthesis and transports large amounts of other adsorbed pollutants. Sediments are bad for Aquatic animals. D Radio-ac tive materials : Radon, uranium, Iodine, cesium, thorium, and tritium are the radio-active materials. These materials may come either from natural or anthropogenic sources. Heat : Heat comes from cooling water for power plants other industrial plants. Heat lowers the solubility of oxygen in water and it also affects aquatic lives directly. 9 1. 4 Health Hazards Caused by Water Pollution : Virtually all types of water pollution are harmful to the health of humans and animals. Water pollution may not damage our health immediately but can be harmful after long term exposure. Different forms of pollutants affect the health of animals in different ways. Such as Heavy metals from industrial processes can accumulate in nearby lakes and rivers. These are toxic to marine life such as sis and shellfish, and subsequently to the humans who eat them. Heavy metals can slow development; result in birth defects and some are carcinogenic. Industrial waste often contains many toxic compounds that damage the health of aquatic animals and those who eat them. Some of the toxins in industrial waste may only have a mild effect whereas other can be fatal. They can cause immune suppression, reproductive failure or acute poisoning. Microbial pollutants from sewage often result in infectious diseases that infect aquatic life and terrestrial life through drinking water. Microbial water pollution is a major problem in the developing world, with diseases such as cholera and typhoid fever being the primary cause of infant mortality. Organic matter and nutrients causes an increase in aerobic algae and depletes oxygen from the water column. This causes the suffocation of fish and other aquatic organisms. Sulfate particles from acid rain can cause harm the health of marine life in the rivers and lakes it contaminates, and can result in mortality. Suspended particles in freshwater reduces the quality of drinking water for humans and the aquatic environment for marine life. Suspended particles can often reduce the amount of sunlight penetrating the water, disrupting the growth of photosynthetic plants and micro-organisms. There are some water borne diseases of human which caused by drinking or using polluted water. They are given pillowcase Bacterial infections Viral infections Protozoan infections Hellishness infection Diseases Typhoid, cholera, Paratyphoid fever, Dysentery Infectious Hepatitis (jaundice), Poliomyelitis Amoebic dysentery Roundworm, Hookworm, threadbare 10 2. 0 Global Warming 2. What is Global Warming : Global warming is defined s a natural or human induced increase in the average global temperature of the atmosphere near the Earths surface. The temperature at or near the surface of the Earth is determined by four main factors : ; ; ; ; The amount of sunlight Earth receives. The amount of sunlight Earth reflects. Retention of heat by the atmosphere. Evaporation and condensation of water vapor. In the last 100 years, Earths average surfa ce temperature increased by about 0. 8 co (1. 4 OF). Two thirds of the increase occurred over the last three decades. Warming of the climate system is unequivocal. Scientists are more Han 90% certain that most of it is caused by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases produced by human activities. These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized countries. 11 2. 2 Causes of Global Warming : Scientists have spent decades figuring out what is causing global warming. Theyve looked at the natural cycles and events that are known to influence climate. But the amount and pattern of warming thats been measured cant be explained by these factors alone. The only way to explain the pattern is to include the effect of greenhouse gases emitted by humans. There are many natural causes of global warming. But they do not warm much the planet. The most serious type of warm is anthropogenic which is created by humans. One of the first things scientists learned is that there are several greenhouse gases responsible for warming and humans emit them in a variety of ways. The causes of global warming are given below -? Greenhouse Gases : Sunlight that reaches Earth warms both the atmosphere and the surface. Earths surface and atmospheric system then irradiate heat as infrared radiation. Certain gases in Earths atmosphere absorb and re-emit this radiation. Some of it returns to the Earth ;s surface, making Earth warmer than it otherwise would be. In trapping heat, the gases act a little like the panes of glass in a greenhouse (although the process by which the heat is trapped is not the same as in a greenhouse), accordingly, the effect is called the greenhouse effect, and the gases which include Water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and chlorofluorocarbons (CIFS) are called greenhouse gases. Extra Carbon Dioxide Release : Human are releasing Carbon dioxide in the environment by burning fossil fuels, burning trees, driving cars and from the industry. This excessive carbon dioxide is not absorbed by the environment. This makes our planet warmer and the result is global warming. CLC Methane Gas from animals, agriculture, Arctic Sea beds: Methane is another extremely potent greenhouse gas, r anking right behind CO. When organic matter is broken down by bacteria under oxygen-starved conditions (anaerobic decomposition) as in rice paddies, methane is produced. The process also takes place in the intestines of herbivorous animals and with the increase in the amount of concentrated livestock production, the levels of methane released into the atmosphere is increasing. Another source of methane is methane celebrate, a compound containing large amounts of methane trapped in the crystal structure of ice. As methane escapes from the Arctic sea beds, the rate of global warming will increase significantly. 12 0 Solar Variation : Variations in solar output have been the cause of past climate changes. The effect Of changes in solar forcing in recent decades is uncertain but small. Some studies showing a slight cooling effect while others studies suggest a slight warming effect. C] Nitrogen Oxides from Farming : Primary component of the green revolution has been the development of iatrogenic fertilizers that dramatically accelerate the growth and productivity of plants in the field. Plants fix or capture, nitrogen on their own as well but green revolution technologies have become so popular that humans are now adding more nitrogen to the earth than all of the plants in the world combined. Nitrogen oxides have 300 times more heat-trapping capacity per unit of volume than does carbon dioxide and we release them every time we apply fertilizer to soil. A recent United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization study found that modern farming is contributing more to global arming than all of the transportation sector combined. This is due partly to the fuel burned in modern farming, but more significantly, to the release of methane and nitrogen oxides. C] Chlorofluorocarbon (CUFF) Gas : Chlorofluorocarbons (CUFF), is used in refrigeration, also powerful greenhouse gas. These gas occur in lower concentrations in the atmosphere, but because they are so much more potent than carbon dioxide, in some cases hundreds of times more potent per unit of volume, they contribute to global warming as well. CLC Deforestation Deforestation increases the severity of global arming as well. Carbon dioxide is released from the human conversion of forests and grasslands into farmland and cities. All living plants store carbon. When those plants die and decay, carbon dioxide is released back into the atmosphere. As forests and grasslands are cleared for human use, enormous amounts of stored carbon enter the atmosphere. Burning Gasoline for transportation : Our modern car culture and appetite for globally sourced goods is responsible for about 33% of emissions in the U. S. With our population growing at an alarming rate, the demand for more cars and nonuser goods means that we are increasing the use of fossil fuels for transportation and manufacturing.

Kant Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Kant - Essay Example Evidently, the rationalists had disregarded perception as utter confused thinking that consequently rendered their theories as mere speculation, impossible of verification or refute. On the other hand, empiricist who theorized that people have access to the actual world in perceptive sense, believed that what people perceive are ideas that manifest in persons through things outside of them. For example, ideas are manifestations of impressions. Consequently, individuals only know their own ideas (Lawhead, pp. 123) According to Kant, he believes that people have access only to appearances. This does not imply access to illusory appearances. However, Kant believes that appearances provide people with the foundation of knowledge. Moreover, the mind contributes to experience due to understanding and the constituent pure categories. Moreover, an active role is played by the mind as well as its ability to superimpose experience on specific categories that result to knowledge. Kant further argues that people cannot know the ‘thing in itself’. To this end, he goes beyond implying the inaccessibility of ‘reality.’ Over and above this, he implies it is impossible to experience anything beyond the function of the mind. Moreover, it justifies how people acquire knowledge. The basic difference between ‘extension’ and ‘mind’ contributes the problem as well backtracked to Descartes. The immaterial nature of the mind rouses the challenge of bridging the disconnect between the outside world and inner mind. Hume believes that mind is basically passive while Descartes believes that in aid in intellectual acts. On the other hand, Kant simulates between empiricism and rationalism. Foremost, he supports Hume by stating that knowledge is impossible without experience. Secondly, he agrees with rationalists by stating that the mind plays a vital part to knowledge. On the

Racism in football Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Racism in football - Essay Example In Cashmore’s book Black Sportsmen, he identifies many factors which have influenced blacks and contributed to their decision to enter the field of sport. Firstly, Cashmore attempts to illustrate and empathise with the tendency for black families to be unstable. How many African/ Caribbean children have been raised in a broken home by a lone parent, typically the mother? By the age of 13 or 14, the child tends to seek out a father figure. In many cases, this results in them building a relationship with their coaches. This relationship/bond usually lasts until the child becomes an adult and is ready to face the real world on their own. â€Å"The surrogate father guides his protà ©gà © through his turbulent teens into his twenties when he develops into a mature and secure sportsman with an abundance of technique and conviction challenging enough to take him to success † (Cashmore, 1982: 79). The majority of afro/Caribbean children did enter sport through the encouragement and support received from coaches and trainers. However, it was only a small proportion that became successful as they held the vital physical assets such as strength and speed. In essence, black parents tended to neglect their child’s development in sport. They generally offered no encouragement and at times made it obvious that they had no interest in sport. Carlos Francis (black footballer) commented on the influence of his parents: â€Å"They’ve never even seen me play. They gave me no encouragement at all and didn’t even realise I was so into football. Even now they don’t take an active interest† (Cashmore, 1982:81). As Cashmore goes on to explain the reasons behind the lack of support, he elaborates on the fact that black parents tend to be pre-occupied in maintaining a material existence, and trying their very best to make ends meet. Most parents were uneducated; when they migrated over they had taken up the work that was made available to them. These

Harassment at the Workplace Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 23

Harassment at the Workplace - Research Paper Example Based on data collected from a multiple of sources, this research paper established that discrimination against the disabled is quite prevalent in the country, and is perpetrated by the very people obliged by law to protect the integrity of every employee, the employer. Similar, the prevalence of sexual harassment at the workplace have hit staggering figures such as those reported by Gruber at â€Å"between 28 percent and 75 percent† (Gumport, 2009). Yet, there is a perpetual fear that the most affected group, women interns, never get to report their ordeal for fear of retribution and the apparent in federal and state laws that protect this particular group of persons. An average adult spends approximately one third of his/her life at the workplace. The resulting interaction inherently causes work issues since it is virtually impossible to have a workplace devoid of conflict, whether spontaneous or systematic. Such workplace issues may result in negative psychological symptoms. For instance, numerous researchers have attributed the high prevalence of mental health issues such as depression and anxiety to perceived stress at the workplace. Presently, while many organizations are embracing diversity and stratification, an apparent laxity in taming innately malicious individuals or systems have seen a rise in cases of harassment and discrimination. The scope of such discrimination range from unfair hiring or biased treatment of individuals based on their race, gender (including pregnancy), religion, national origin, age, disability, among others. Harassment on the other hand relates to unwelcome conduct based on the unit or a combination of elements enumerated earlier.

A report on the Implementation of Standard Costing

A report on the Implementation of Standard Costing In current years, various tools such as activity-based costing, the balanced scorecard and target costing have been used in the business community. However, traditional management accounting systems continue to be widely applied. One example is standard costing, which has been used on a wide front during the last century. The purpose of this paper is to examine the widely use of standard costing system. Despite it is less relevant than newer accounting methods, standard costing is far from obsolete. Because of its simplicity, flexibility and affordability, standard costing remains a favorite cost accounting method among accounting and finance professionals. Introduction: In todays time of rapid technologic change, tough global and domestic competition, total cost management is central to sustained corporate profitability and competitiveness. The management focus today is to minimize cost. The cost leadership strategy does not mean compromise on either quality or technology or product differentiation. Low costs are no advantage, if the customers are not willing to buy the product of low cost firm. Cost management has to be driven with customer as the focus. The survival way for any company is how to manage its product/service cost, quality and performance. The customers are continuously demanding high quality and better performance products/services and at the same time, they want the prices to fall. The shareholders are also demanding a required rate of return on their investment with the company. Thus, cost has become a residual. The challenge is being able to manufacture or provide service with the stipulated cost framework. Thus, cost management has to be an ongoing continuous improvement program. Standard Costing In recent years, various tools such as activity-based costing, the balanced scorecard and target costing have been used in the business community (Kaplan Cooper, 1998; Kaplan Norton, 1996; Ansari et al1997). However, traditional management accounting systems continue to be widely applied (Brewer, 2000). One example of traditional management accounting is standard costing. Standards can be used with either job order or process costing system to provide important information for managerial planning, controlling, and decision making. Standard costing assists in setting budgets and evaluating managerial performance. The major motive to use standard costing is because it facilitates product costing estimation (Ask Ax, 1997). Ask and Axs study is supported by a study conducted by Puxty and Lyall (1989), which reported that 76 percent of the UK commercial and industrial companies operate a standard costing system. Although it is used widely, people recently criticize it could not provide the information needed in todays competitive environment. Despite the criticism, there are few signs that the use of standard costing tends to decrease. The survey from Ask and AX (1997) showed that 12.6 % of the companies investigated stated that they would abandon standards but on the other hand, 9.9 % stated that they would like to convert to standard costing system. The History of Standard Costing The standard costing system was developed in the early 1900s. According to Drury (1992), it was the scientific management principles recommended by F.W. Taylor and other engineers. Scientific engineers built up information about standards to set up the best way to use labour and material resources within manufacturing. Engineers used the standards to provide information for planning the flow of work so that the waste of materials and labour was minimized. Interestingly, engineers did not consider standards as a tool to control financial costs at that time (Drury, 1992) The first thoughts of using standards as a tool to control costs came from G. Charter Harrison, who designed the first standard costing system. Started in 1911, Harrison worked for the Boss Manufacturing Company, Illinois, in USA makers of work gloves. It took him a few years before he published the first set of equations for the analysis of cost variances (Solomons, 1968) Harrison was not the only person on the standard costing scene. In 1908 and 1909 Harrington Emerson supported the development of an information system specifically directed towards the achievement of efficiency objectives. Emerson stated that information about standards allow managers to differentiate variances that are due to controllable conditions and variances that are caused by conditions beyond managements control (Solomons, 1968) Traditionally standard costing systems are used in order to support the manufacturing industry. Today standard costing is widely used by all kinds of industries. The Purpose of A Standard Costing System: The purpose of cost and management accounting is to provide financial information to managers to help them to plan activities, control the activities and see the financial implications of any decisions they make take (Hussey Hussey, 1998). Standard costing systems provide cost data that can be used for many different purposes. Ask and AX (1997) have identified several fields of application when it comes to a standard costing system. Their survey has the following reasons/purposes why a company may use a standard costing system: Product Costing 82.4% Inventory Valuation 64.8% Variance Analysis 56.0% Budgeting 45.1% Transfer Pricing 31.9% Drury (1996) gives a wider view of the purposes. He states that the main purpose a standard costing system can be used are: To help in setting budges and evaluating managerial performance. To act as a control device by stressing those activities which do not match to plan and thus alert decision-makers to those situations that many be out of control and in need of remedial action. To provide a forecast of future costs that can be used for decision making purposes. To simplify the task of tracing costs to products for inventory evaluation purposes. To provide a challenging target with individuals are motivated to achieve. There are many advantages with standards. Calculations are easier made and an effective performance controls are enabled, which provide opportunity to savings. Critique Against Standard Costing Systems Standard costs are major elements within the management accounting area. They were used when organizations conditions were stable, standardized products were produced and labour and material costs were the major costs components. But todays business environment is different. The difficulties in the manufacturing process are increased when products are many and product series are short. (Ask Ax, 1997) When difficulties increase, it has more complicated interpreting of variances. Moreover, it could be difficult to tie the variances to the particular persons or the particular areas. Also, when the manufacturing conditions become more complex, the amount of fixed costs increases. Therefore, fewer opportunities will influence the total costs in the short term. Managers have less interesting to manage by using traditional thinking on how costs are influenced by volume. As shown above, standards may be difficult to set in todays dynamic conditions. A standard costing system may be expensive to maintain and the additional record-keeping may become a burden to managers and they lose confidence in the system. (Hussey Hussey, 1997) Richard Fleischman and Thomas Tyson claimed that standard costing cannot provide adequate assistance in the areas of construction strategy and operational management. (Fleischman and Tyson, 1998) Don Hansen and Maryanne Mowen describe standard costing system as potentially dysfunctional. (Hansen and Mowen, 2002) These criticisms have contributed to the dismissal of standard costing, especially for large companies that have more sophisticated method such as Activity Based Costing (ABC) and target costing. Mike Lucas even questioned that whether it is still appropriate for college accounting programs to teach this topic. (Lucas, 1997) Global Acceptance of Standard Costing While academics pointing out the weaknesses of standard costing, people observed that this accounting tool continues to be widely used throughout the world. Studies showed that in developed countries the standard costing using rate is as high as 73% in the U.K. and 86% in Japan. (Garg, Ghosh, Hudick and Nowacki, 2003) More specifically76% of 303 accountants in the U.K. and 73% of 85 finance and accounting specialists in New Zealand use standard costing. (Guilding, Lamminmaki and Drury, 1998) The authors also found that accountants viewed modern costing and production management tools as having no impact on how widely standard costing and variance analysis are used. A study by Maliah Sulaiman, Nik Nazli and Norhayati Mohd Alwi of companies doing business in Malaysia found similar widespread dissemination and persistence of standard costing: 70% of 66 local firms and 76% of 21 Japanese are using standard costing. These studies reveal that standard costing does not overemphasize cost control; however, it is linked to quality management. In addition, the Lucas and Sulaiman studies have shown that companies use historical performance instead of predetermined engineering standards on actual costs. Instead of using newer and costlier systems, companies chose to reconfigure existing system with more precise schemes, implying that firms have adapted standard costing to their specific needs and have not abandoned it. Swiss Chalet Standard Costs System: System Description In order to demonstrate that standard costing is far from obsolete. I examined the standard costing system at Swiss Chalet, one of the biggest Canadian restaurant chains. The collected data of this study consists of in-depth interviews with employees working with standard costing at different divisions within Swiss Chalet. The study about the standard costing in U.K., Dubai and Malaysia is also used. First opened in 1954, Swiss Chalet now has more than 190 restaurants across Canada and United States serving their signature rotisserie chicken and a variety of other menu items. In the beginning of each month, Swiss Chalets area manger will send standard costs to each Swiss Chalets store. The standard costs are generated through historical data and area managers analysis based on each stores current situation. Then, management in each store can project materials, labor and overhead costs by reviewing the standard costs established for each of these cost elements. Then computer generate the variances and make managers recognize the differences between the actual activities and resource consumption and the expected activities and resource consumption. When the variance is significant, this is a signal for investigation, Managers will try to discover the cause and exert influence to correct it. Therefore, cost control and performance evaluation is the main purpose of Swiss Chalets Standard Costing System. According to Mann-Whitney U test Statistic13, inventory costing is the key function of standard costing for industries in U.K, Dubai and Malaysia. Also, Mann-Whitney U test suggests that the industrial-sector companies in U.K. use standard costing to a greater extent than the service sector for the functions of cost control and performance evaluation, costing inventories and computing product cost for decision making. Also, in only one instance has this pattern reverted toward the service sector: the use of standard costing as an aid to budgeting. These findings are consistent with those of other studies of industrial sector companies in Malaysia and the U.K. (Marie Rao, 2010) Material Standards: Swiss Chalets direct material components have three categories: foods, liquor and disposals. Foods include chicken, potatoes, ribs, and vegetables. Etc. Liquor includes wine, spirit and other non-alcohol beverages. Disposals include food boxes and bags to wrap food. Also, the standard cost of non-value-added materials such as discount materials, food wastes and voidable orders are also included for the purpose of reduction or elimination. When area mangers determine the standard cost, historical cost, stores current performance and cost-benefit trade-offs are involved in making quality decisions. When all quantity and price information has been gathered, component quantities are multiplied by unit prices to yield the total cost of each component. These totals are summed to determine the total standard material cost of one unit of product and the total standard material cost. Information about direct material of each component, their specifications (including quality), their quantitie s and total standard material cost are listed on a bill of materials. This average of historic usage method is consistent with statistics of service sectors in Dubai, U.K. and Malaysia. According to Mann-Whitney U test Statistic, 76% of service sector in Dubai and 63% of service sector in Malaysia use average of historic usage to set up labor and material standards. On the other hand, nearly nine out of 10 industrial sector respondents in Dubai employed standards based on design/engineering studies, which is comparable to Japanese companies in Malaysia (81%). These firms appear to be significantly more scientific in their approach to standards setting compared to the service sectors, which predominantly used average of historic usage method. Labor Standards: The procedures for developing labor standards are similar to those used for material standards in Swiss Chalet. Swiss Chalet has four types of works in the front of the house: servers, hosts, managers and bar tenders. They also have three types of people in the kitchen: cooks, line cooks and pre cooks. The standard costs of each type of worker in each specific time range are identified. Because they are in the restaurant business, labor requirement is different during the different period of the day. Therefore, their labor standards are specifically identified in each hour. Their managers salaries are also counted into the labor standard costs although they are fixed overhead cost. Labor rate standards reflect the wages and fringe benefits paid to employees. Because employees in the same position are paid different wage rates based on their experiences in the restaurant business, a weighted average rate is computed and used as the standard. After labor tasks are analyzed, an operatio ns flow document is prepared that lists all the necessary activities and labor costs in each time range. Overhead Standards: Swiss Chalet store has two types of overhead costs: utility costs and maintenance costs. (Managers salaries are included in the labor costs). Utility costs include rent, gas and hydro, etc. Maintenance costs include equipment repair budget, sanitary service and pest controls, etc. Area managers use historical data, store situation and market price to determine the overhead standard costs. Swiss Chalets managers review the standard every month. Slightly more than half of Dubai industries (52%) conduct reviews semiannually, consistent with Japanese respondents in Malaysia (55%). On the other hand, domestic Malaysia firms in the U.K. were apt to review their costing standards annually at a rate of 35% and 68%, respectively. (Marie Rao, 2010) Material Variance: Store managers do the inventory count every week and then input direct material cost they used of each component, their specifications (including quality), their quantities and total standard material cost into the computer system. The computer system generates the price variance and quantity variance. Store managers usually can not do much about the price variance because they are not able to control prices. Head office has purchasing contracts with their suppliers with fixed prices in the yearly basis. The only price they can control is vegetable prices, which have seasonal fluctuation. Managers are able to influence the price according to the price variance. Quantity variances are considered the responsibility of the person in charge of the kitchen. When the quantity variance is too big, managers have to think about the efficiency of the material usage, weather experienced employees are well allocated in different shift and weather further training should be provided. Labor Variance: When employees start to work and when they leave the store, they input their password into the computer system. Computer system automatically records their working hours and generates labor rate variance and labor efficiency variance. If the labor cost is bigger than 29% of the total costs, head office will give a warning to the stores, demanding them to reduce the labor costs. Therefore, managers have to balance the use of experienced workers and inexperienced workers in a specific task by using labor efficiency variance and labor rate variance. Using highly skilled highly paid individuals for lower-level jobs could cause an unfavorable labor rate variance, accompanied by a favorable labor efficiency variance. Therefore, Swiss Chalet examines variance where the variance exceeds a given percentage of standard. In Dubai, 39% of industrial companies and 50% of service companies base their costing decisions on managerial judgment, compared to roughly half of U.K. companies and one fourth of local and Japanese companies in Malaysia. However, 35% of firms in Dubais industrial sector and 29% in its service sector answered when the variance exceeded a given percentage of standard, which is similar to the rates found in the Malaysia and U.K. studies. (Marie Rao, 2010) II Usefulness and effectiveness of the System: The major advantage of standard cost system in Swiss Chalet is that it highlights and allows management to manage by exceptions, that is, it allows management to concentrate on the areas where there are inefficiencies. It also allows company management to understand the quality expected and costs that will be incurred in the preparation of each dish and what impacts deviations from these standards will have on costs and profits. When the variance is significant, this is a signal for investigation, Managers tries to discover the cause and exert influence to correct it. In the Swiss Chalet store I visited, costs are under control; productivity is high; workers are achieving bonuses based on team activity goals and employee morale is high in a work environment typically viewed as tedious. The system is highly controlled and automated. The process is effective and the standards they set are appropriate and attainably. Although their standards are developed from past and current information, environmental, seasonal and economic factors are considered for the period in which the standards are to be applied. Swiss Chalets material, labor and overhead standard costs are changed every month. For example, recently, Swiss Chalet eliminated many non value added labor movements, their labor time standards changed very soon accordingly. Swiss Chalets standards can be reached or slightly exceeded approximately 60% or 70% of the time with reasonable effort by workers. Their standards allow for normal, unavoidable time problems or delays. Their standards represent an attainable challenge and are able to motivate workers performance and at determining how effectively and efficiently workers are performing their tasks. III Recommendation: Process changes: Under current system, area managers are the only people who do the standard costs setting. I believe that area managers could cooperate with purchasing manager, accountants, marketing managers and store managers to determine which choices are most appropriate. The cooperation will help the company better balance the interrelationship of cost, quality, quantity and selling price. Under the current system, standard costs of each type of worker in each specific time range are used to calculate the total labor standards. However, workers salaries are different even in the same position because their experiences are different. Therefore, each individuals salary and individual numbers in one specific time range used to calculate the standard labor costs should be identified for managers better understand the standards and better improve their labor arrangement and improve their labor efficiency. Computer System change: Swiss Chalets current computer system is good, but still not highly automated. They still use fax to transit data and information within the organization are not highly shared within one portal. Therefore, I believe Enterprise Resource Planning System (ERP) will make their work process more effectively. EPR system provides a much higher level of accuracy to gathering cost information. With most manufacturing processes being automated and operated with little direct labor, ERP system has the advantage of keeping an accurate record of overhead cost pools at all levels in an organization. ERP has greater capacity to accurately allocate costs and it is important for developing accurate standards. Standard costs can be prepared with, for example, the sub-module mySAP.com Financials under ERP system. Intermountain Health Care, Inc.s Standard System According to Mr. W.V. Rosqvists research paper Intermountain Health Care, Inc, (IHC) Satandard Costing System Methodology and Implementation, the IHC Standard Costing System is able to manipulate the procedure costs in any way desirable to provide meaningful groupings for analysis. The Standard Costing System provides hospital management with a tool for meeting increased cost pressures in the health care environment. The system is useful for pricing services, but it is also important to monitor productivity and analyze costs and profitability. IHC is a not-for-profit hospital chain with 22 hospitals in the intermountain area and head office is in Salt Lake City. They have a complex approach to determine detailed standard costs for every procedure in the hospital. IHCs standard costing system was designed to link the hospitals financial management and case mix reporting system to provide significant information in the area of following: Cost/Profit Studies: the ability to determine cost and profit at each of levels, such as patient, physician, medical specialty, payer and employer. Marketing: to make complex decisions regarding the competitive market forces such as pricing, contracting and physician retirement. The analysis gives hospital the advantage to determine the financial impact of changes in volume. Departmental Productivity: to monitor the department performance to help variance analysis and goal setting. Utilization of Hospital Service: the ability to alter utilization, which depends on the ability to analyze current patterns and associated costs. Cost Comparison: To compare costs to other hospitals to help managers to identify and learn the efficient methods. Competitive Analysis: To study competitor information and make reasonable judgment of its costs. It will allow a significant view of the impact of price completion on all the competitors. It will help IHC to determine the extent to which it should compete on prices with other hospitals and with nontraditional health care providers, such as outpatient surgery centers. The IHC approach to standard costing provides detailed costs for every individual charge item in the hospital. Fixed and variable costs are maintained for every item in broad categories: labor expense, supply expense, depreciation and hospital overhead. After the implementation, their standard costing system is able to: provide full standard fixed and variable costs for management purpose in making pricing and marketing decisions; maintain a management reporting system compatible with existing system; provide an approach to compare hospitals and departments; provide accuracy while allowing easy and rapid maintenance. (M. V. Rosqvist) The Future of Standard Costing: According to Cheatham and Cheatham (1996), many accountants do not know that a redesigned standard costing system can provide the important information that they need and updating their system is an easier process than adopting a new system. They also point out that standard costing system combines managerial, financial and operations accounting, which make it as a control system. But the possible replacement is only cost accumulation system. Critics against the standard costing system questioned whether the system is useful in the manufacturing system of today. As we demonstrated above, it is still a widely used method, due to the fact that it provides cost information for many different ways in addition to cost control. A lot of companies adapted their standard costing system to report on these variables that particularly important to them. In companies where an activity-based system is implemented, standard costing is still essential when it comes to controlling the costs of unit-level activities. Other criticism comes from that overemphasis is on the price and efficiency, which would make quality aside. Also, volume variance to measure utilization of capacity ignores overproduction and unnecessary build-up of inventory. In this situation the fact that variance analysis is not locked in to a set of variables is ignored. Used variables can be changed when the need arises. Examples of this are presented below. (Cheatham Cheatham, 1996) To use standards on the functions of raw material ordering and inventory levels, which give information about the effectiveness of suppliers. Because the objective is to deliver orders as placed, any variances are undesired. Price variances can be combined with a quality variance to prevent purchasing managers from only focusing on price but do not pay attention to quality. Raw materials inventory variances indicate an inventory build-up, because more material purchased than used, by reverted conditions. This is in line with a just-in-time theory. Further criticism is about the non-focus of continuous improvement. But, standards based on engineering studies or historical data are not a necessary part of a standard costing system because standards can be changed by a lot of methods. Examples are listed as below. (Cheatham Cheatham, 1996) Use last periods results as standards. The last periods result has to be representative; otherwise it needs to be revised. It is also achievable to use a base period that comparisons are made. Use benchmark as something outside companies. To compare with competitors or with the leader of the industry. Use predetermined cost reduction by reducing the standard cost for every period by a predetermined amount to achieve constant improvement. Finally, the reporting system of the standard costing system may be revised. In the traditional way internal completion often arises. By revising the reporting system, cooperation among workers, managers and departments can be supported. Conclusion: Despite it is less relevant than newer accounting methods, standard costing is far from obsolete. However, redesign and update the standard costing system to adapt the new environment may be necessary. Because of its simplicity, flexibility and affordability, standard costing remains a favorite cost accounting method among accounting and finance professionals.

Experiences in the Writing Center Essay -- Personal Narrative Writing

Experiences in the Writing Center When I started to work at the Writing Center, I had about eleven years of experience in tutoring English as a foreign language to non-native English speakers in Germany. The experience I had gained from that proved to be very helpful. Before you can address the problems in writing, like any other problem, it is very important to get to know the writer. If you can build a bridge between the two individuals, who should work together in a tutoring session, it is a lot easier to discuss problems and find solutions. As some of the problems might have personal reasons or it might be difficult for the writer to discuss the reason for some obstacles in writing well, a more personal basis supports any work in that way. Looking back at the sessions I tutored in this quarter, I would like to focus on the problems of one student. The student brought three papers to the center, and his papers showed problems in constructing complete and correct sentences, as well as defining paragraphs, and some of his sentences sounded awkward. These problems occurred in all his papers. After a brief introduction and some questioning about the content of each paper, it became obvious that the writer was able to tell me exactly what he wanted to talk about and in what order paper should appear. Yet, he had the problem of bringing his thoughts onto his paper. We started to discuss some sentences of his first paragraph, where he concentrated almost only on the content of what he wanted to say, but never on the way HOW he could express his thoughts clearly to a reader. To him the fragmented sentences, put together piece after piece, containing a lot of information, made completely sense, because he KNEW what he w... ...hod to make writers aware, that an essential part of their sentence is missing, is to use symbols that refer to the parts of the sentence. So far, I have had quite some good results in explaining it that way: The writer has to pay attention! The sentence ends with an exclamation mark -- put together with the symbols square, upward triangle, and ellipse (). The three symbols put together on top of each other resemble an exclamation mark (). If these three parts are separated again, they have the following meaning: = square = 's' like in SUBJECT = "V" with top = 'v' like in VERB = "O" = 'o' like in OBJECT. If the writer draws these symbols around the corresponding parts in the sentences, then it becomes visually clear which part is missing. A lot of people learn easier this way and find a way to memorize the essential parts of any sentence easier.

To Investigate Importance Of Physical Architecture Essay

The essay aims to look into importance of physical and non spacial facets and their interrelatedness thru series of geographic expeditions and apprehension by instance surveies ( Old market square Nottingham and St John churchyard Hackney ) with theoretical statements.At the terminal paper would happen out cogency of selected theoretical statements about the physical and non physical facets. Further the interrelatedness of the of these facets will research.The selected cased surveies are Market square Nottingham and St John God's acre, Hackney, London. ‘Many interior decorators and designers regard public infinite as the publically owned empty spots between edifices. Many of these infinites are useless or unsafe and abandoned, with the consequence that ‘this renders their definition as public infinite nothing and nothingness ( Worpole and Greenhalgh, 1996 ) This essay besides opposes the generic manner of thought of planning and designing of the unfastened infinites sing merely physical properties of design. This essay besides advocates wholly different position for sing the unfastened infinite and non the stereotype impression of aesthetic, beautification, take a breathing infinite, or lungs infinite. ‘The Parkss are volatile infinites and tend to runs to the extremes of popularity and unpopularity ‘ ( Jane Jacob 1960 ) . Open infinite is unstable entity and quiet unpredictable in many ways, and have much more significance than mere take a breathing infinite or lung infinite or merely to fulfill the unfastened infinite norm set by the town planning or development control ordinance. ‘There are far excessively many unfertile place and windswept corners that are infinites left over from another map ( such as traffic circulation or natural lighting demands for tall edifices ) .This phenomenon is Sometimes referred to as ‘SLOAP ‘ – infinite left over after be aftering ‘ . ( Henry Shaftoe 2008 ) Open infinite planning and planing inherently critical compared to other edifice or land uses this has lowest grade of the spacial excitations but can be highly vulnerable if non decently thought. This essay arranged to flux from the theoretical to practical. Attempts to bring out the facets that constitute public infinites.1.2 Defining and understanding Open infiniteOpen infinite has different reading for interior decorator and designer and the end-users. The town and state planning act defines it as ‘land laid out as a public garden, or used for the intents of public diversion, or land which is a obsolete entombment land ‘ . This definition is consequence of academic or what town contriver & A ; architect feels about the public infinite as public garden or infinite for diversion can non specify holistically. Conversely Gehl defined the unfastened infinite on the footing of the activity forms and more users centric. ‘An sphere allows for different types of activities embracing necessary, optional, and societal actives ‘ ( Gehl 1987 ) . However Walzer ‘s definition is more inclusive and holding societal dimension, he says Public infinite is infinite where we portion with aliens, Peoples who are n't our relations, friends or work associates. It is infinite for political relations, faith, commercialism, athletics ; infinite for peaceable coexistence and impersonal brush. Its character expresses and besides conditions our public life, civic civilization, mundane discourse Walzer ( 1986 ) The above reading gives different virtuousnesss of the unfastened infinite and establishes importance of it.Chapter 2. Discussion of Theories and PrinciplesThis chapter would cover about statements of the spacial and non spacial facets of the public infinite. Kavin lynch ‘s theory about the ocular facets of the ocular facets of the cityscapes easiness with which its parts can be recognized and can be arranged in to coherent form ( Lynch 1960 ) . However Henry Shaftoe argues ‘People want coherency and a sense of safety in public infinites, but they do n't desire blandness ‘ ( Kaplan and Kaplan 1989, Marsh 1990 ) . I would state topographic point devising should see both facets as they are every bit contribute for doing the topographic point societal sustainable. I would wish to confirm with Rasmussen statement who says ‘It is non adequate to see architecture ; you must see it ‘ ( Rasmussen 1959 ) ‘Sensuous demands may co-occur or conflict with other demands but can non be separated from them in planing or judgment, nor are they ‘impractical ‘ or simply cosmetic, or even nobler than other concerns. Feeling is indispensable to being alive ‘ . ( Lynch 1971p189 ) Lynch statements are pro aesthetic or pro physical development but harmonizing to him the physical scene is strong plenty to make the sense of the topographic point. Other observer differs with Lynch ‘If our apprehension is limited to a ocular apprehension, we merely concentrate on forms. If, nevertheless, we go beyond visual aspects, we start a spacial apprehension, a three dimensional experience. We can come in this infinite, instead than merely see it. The same applies to the design of infinites. We do non make mere visual aspects but infinites that we can utilize for different intents ‘ . ( Madanipour 1996 p99 ) . The undertaking for public infinite has put frontward Ten Principles for Creating Successful Squares. However it would be hard to use this rule universally as said earlier Open infinite is unstable entity and is affected by socio- economic system, political relations, and human ecology and other societal ailments or good qualities. Generalised attack for planning and planing unfastened infinite may non work as the unfastened infinite is alone in many ways. Further Ali Midanapour expressed concern over planing without understanding the world. ‘This position of design, as an elitist, artistic endeavor which has no relationship to the existent, day-to-day jobs of big subdivisions of urban societies, has led to the decrease of urban design to a ocular activity ‘ ( Ali Midanapour 1997 ) . Similar to above statement Henry Shaftoe emphasis on the psychological dimension /non spacial dimension of the unfastened infinite ‘Public infinites serve a figure of practical maps, being topographic points for trading, meeting, conversing, resting and so on. Yet there is an extra dimension to public infinite – it can carry through certain psychological demands every bit good as strictly physical 1s. By ‘psychology ‘ in this context, I mean anything that affects our behavior or feelings. ( Henry Shaftoe 2008 ) From the above treatment one may feel that there something more than physical dimension, which makes public infinite socially sustainable infinite. As infinite is an enclosing component and it encloses the activity. Activity is non needfully being merely physical enclosure centric.Chapter 3. The Research Question‘Do merely aesthetically fulfilling public infinite can organize the socially sustainable infinites ‘ ? The research inquiry would research the interrelatedness of the non spacial dimension with spacial one in designing of the unfastened infinite. Underpinnings and rules of the doing successful infinites would be tested on the real-time instance surveies to formalize the statements. The testing of the theoretical hypotheses may give us the being of the non design facets and their importance. The inquiry besides explores how intentional public infinites matched to the cross subdivision of the society.3.1 Framework for probe.Since the research inquiry demands geographic expeditions qualitative and quantitative facets. The of import virtuousness of the instance survey would be ocular study, thru which I would look into the both physical and non physical facet of the instance survey. ‘Only through eternal walking can the interior decorator absorb into his being the true graduated table of urban infinites ‘ ( Edmund Bacon 1975 ) . The recognizance study would be distributed over weekends weekdays and different period of a twenty-four hours. Further the instance survey would look into the qualitative facet of the study through people perception study. The probe of non spacial facets would be done by Reconnaissance study and the Study of tenancy in different period of hebdomad and different period of twenty-four hours. Besides examines the tenancy in gay and non gay season. Non spacial facets would be done by semi structured interviews with end-users to cognize what they feel about public infinite what is missing. What is the factors attractive force or repulsive force to the unfastened infinite? Their aspirations about the unfastened infinite. Due to restriction of the academic paper the sample of size of the instance surveies would be little. However the series of ocular geographic expedition and reconnaissance study would bridge the spread.3.2 Case surveiesThe instance surveies for the testing are Nottingham old market square and St. John church viridity. Idea of choosing these instance surveies is they portion similarities in many ways, some of them are postulated below.Surrounded busy commercial country.Cardinal location of the metropolis and country i.e. east London.Heritage structures around like church and St.Augustine tower in footings of Hackney, town hall and Municipal council office.Areas offer Transport connectivity to the remainder of the metropolis or country.Nottingham Old market Square Area of the old market square is 4,400m2, quiet geometrical ( i.e. inner square approximately 100 x44 m ) . The natural topography of the original medieval square is exploited in the design by gradual degrees for wheel chair users and for drainage flow. The council house forms the border of the northern border of the market square Figure 1 The study demoing the solid and null country of the market square The enclosure of the market square is formed by constructing about. Inner Square is bounded by the commercial, constitution ‘s coffeehouse, restaurants and branded supermarkets via Debenhams. Outer ring of the pedestrianised on North and east side portion of the Square. Strategically located in the bosom metropolis commercial country the edifice has utilised about 100 % of the secret plan are. The country around the market square represents all right grained development.3.3 Case study no-1 The St John Church Yard -Hackney LondonArea of the public infinite – 3.83 hour angle. The St John Church Yard -Hackney London is outstanding pubic infinite in Hackney cardinal. A mixture of different infinites, the gardens provide a formal scene for the church and Clapton Square to the North. The public infinite is isolated from the from the busy Mare street. From part majorly utilised for the inactive diversion and rear countries constitutes the kids play country. The St. John Church and St. Augustine tower is major landmark of the country helps in voyaging prosaic traffic.3.4 Discussion of instance surveies illations and theory3.4.1 Amenities-‘A square should have comfortss that make it comfy for people to utilize.A bench or waste receptacle in merely the right location can do a large difference in how people choose to utilize a topographic point ‘ ( www.PPs.org 2009 ) . However Urbanist William H. Whyte ‘s suggested more ‘flexible attack ‘ harmonizing to him ‘in public infinites, people prefer movable chairs to repair seating. Peoples like to command their ain infinite, and movable chairs allow them to make merely that. Movable chairs let people face one another and interact in different ways. ‘ ( hypertext transfer protocol: //www.city-journal.org/2009/eon1019am.html ) This suggests that planing the unfastened infinites should be sing mind of larger subdivision of the society and non merely what landscape interior decorator ‘s want. Harmonizing to H. Whyte maintaining the scattered would direct a message of trust that people will non steal them. Conversely, since the unfastened infinite is affected by the society ailments and frailty versa, this besides can non be generalised rule.3.4.2 Seasonal Strategy – Is programme is overmastering than infinite?‘Successful Square ca n't boom with merely one design or direction scheme ‘ . ( PPs.org 2009 ) . This statement is quiet valid in many ways, public needs to alter or accommodate as per the seasons. In absence of the seasonal scheme may ensue underutilisation of the infinite in certain period of twelvemonth. The seasonal scheme is good demonstrated in Old market square Nottingham. Figure 6 Shows the wheel of Nottingham by and large opens from February to stop of April. ( hypertext transfer protocol: //www.wheelofnottingham.co.uk/index4.html ) Figure 5 Shows the ice skating sphere and German market is chief attractive force in the winter. During Christmas the infinite is filled with activities and peoples. The seasonal scheme is programme that is implemented. The seasonal schemes non merely do the best use but besides generate activities throughout the twelvemonth.Further makes infinite more economically sustainable and can be managed good. This rule can be supported with Henry shaftoe ‘s statement, he says ‘As a species we are sociable animate beings who like to garner in groups or battalions. Therefore, when we see people like us lingering in a infinite, we are attracted to it, over and above any physical or environmental attractive forces that the topographic point may hold ‘ . ( Henry Shaftoe 2008 ) On the other manus the Hackney does n't show as stronger seasonal scheme or programme. Therefore ST.John God's acre is n't able generate activities to pull the people. Even if Hackney church pace has appealing landscape gardening, the heritage construction Church and St. Augustine tower, locality to the busy market street and strategic positing. However the scheduling limited for the certain period of clip of twenty-four hours but he country around the market square is chiefly commercial so this country becomes dull and inactive so leads to less perceptual experience of safety.3.4.3 Flexibility and Adaptability‘The usage of a square alterations during the class of the twenty-four hours, hebdomad, and twelvemonth. To react to these natural fluctuations, flexibleness demands to be built in. Alternatively of a lasting phase, for illustration, a retractable or impermanent phase could be used. Likewise, it is of import to hold on-site storage for movable chairs, tabular arraies, umbrellas, and games so they can be used at a minute ‘s notice ‘ . ( www.PPs.org 2009 ) . The principal of flexibleness and adaptability can been seen in the old market square. The H2O characteristic of the old market square is 1.8 thousand H2O autumn, rivulets and 53 jets and a scrim, arranged as patios. This H2O characteristic can be turned off and used as phases or impermanent screening countries. Five listed lanterns and two flag poles have besides been refurbished and integrated into the new strategy.3.4.4 Peoples pulling people or steering physical properties of public infinite‘Any great square has a assortment of smaller â€Å" topographic points † within it to appeal to assorted people. These can include out-of-door caf & A ; eacute ; s, fountains, and sculpture, †¦ ( www.pps.org ) However Henry shaftoe argues ‘As a species we are sociable animate beings who like to garner in groups or battalions. Therefore, when we see people like us lingering in a infinite, we are attracted to it, over and above any physical or environmental attractive forces that the Topographic point may hold. ( Sahftoe Henry ) . If we test above the statements on St. John God's acre, Hackney, Henry Shaftoe ‘s statement is holds cogency. Because St. John God's acre has quiet pulling physical properties such as St John church, Saint Augustine tower but still fails to pull peoples. Similarly in study one of the interviewee said, he follows the crowd for utilizing the infinite. This may because more figure of people gives perceptual experience of safety and for many users sense community is much more of import than the physical visual aspect of the scene.3.4.5 Interrelation of the Inner Square, Outer Square, and Series of Small Squares‘Visionary park contriver Frederick Law Olmsted ‘s thought of the â€Å" interior park † and the â€Å" outer park † is merely as relevant today as it was over 100 old ages ago. The streets and pavements around a square greatly affect its handiness and usage, as do the edifices that surround it ‘ . ( www.pps.org 2009 ) This rule is quiet right and can be seen in the Old market square as the street on the northern and eastern side are wholly pedestranised with active frontage facing towards the square. It provides surveillance and besides increases its tenancy. Further Henry Shaftoe adds new dimension of series of squares. ‘Some of the most gratifying public infinites are those that consist of a series of squares connected by short prosaic paths, so that one can roll through a series of Unfurling tableaux. ‘ ( Henry Shaftoe 2008 page figure 80 ) This hypothesis is valid in footings of market square as shown in program the Old market square is surrounded by series of smaller squares of the size ( mention fig no xxxxxx ) . Figure 6 the study demoing little public infinites around the Old market squares shown in blue. the smaller public infinites around the market squares makes people to flux into the old market square Further the grounds of interrelatedness of spacial character, graduated table and proportion are derived from how human perceive it. Kavin lynch has put frontward some dimension of the outdoor squares based on how we experience the out-of-door infinite. â€Å" We can observe human being from the distance of 1200 m, recognize him at 25 m see his facial look at 14 m, and experience him in direct relation to us -present or intrusive -at 1-3 metre. † ( kavin lynch 1 Gary Hack2 1971 ) further he says the dimension 12 are confidant and up to 25 metre is still an easy for human graduated table This hypotheses are valid in the in the smaller squares near to the Market squares viz near to the express vacation in western side. ( 17 Wide ) And 2nd square ( as shown in phtoxxx in ) northern side 9 near to the, pizza hut etc which is 28 metre ( measured from www.googlemaps.co.uk ) .3.4.6 Natural elementsThe natural component are besides important subscriber in the in heightening the experience of the infinite. ‘The feel of the warm zephyr, or a sudden iciness Draft, the sound of air current through the trees, or blasts of blown fall leaves waken the passer-by to the present minute. These intense experiences of alteration or difference in nature – particularly those that are peculiarly gratifying – may arouse shared looks of delectation and pleasance ‘ . ( Lennard and Lennard 1995 p39 ) In reconnaissance study and the semi structured interview uncovers the natural elements such as the visible radiation and shadiness of trees, thick green grass, sound of H2O adds up to the experience of infinite, so the park is non stay mere physical entity it turns in to see. And experience of the infinite makes users to see once more and once more.1.1 Summary of findings, decisionsIn visible radiation of the instance surveies and the statements of different writers it points out towards our experience of the topographic point is combination of all senses non merely ocular. This hypothesis forms the lineation of the aesthetic and environmental psychological science. There are many factors such as right graduated table enclosures sense of machination, easiness of apprehension, neither claustrophobic nor agoraphobic etc many of these factors interact in really harmonious mode. The aesthetics dominates desires believing in many ways for the simple ground it is they are visually appealing, therefore interior decorators approach is aesthetic centric and tends to overlook the non spacial facets such the noise, odor, touch, sense of topographic point The unfastened infinite phenomenon in the typically urban context is truly unstable and dynamic. In my sentiment handling the unfastened infinite more carefully and non merely left over or take a breathing or lungs infinite or merely attractive unfastened infinite, it much more than that. As designer we should non enforce individualized thought on the unfastened infinite as terminal users are one who makes it successful. The physical enclosure of public infinite is one that starts the interaction and non design facets are besides moving as accelerator to organize socially sustainable infinite. The essay restriction being academic survey and research more by increasing sample size and besides clip restriction. Reconnaissance study and user ‘s perceptual experience study with bigger sample size and including representative of cross subdivision of society i.e. based on age group ethnicity, physically handicapped etc distributed over the twelvemonth. We may non get at definite solutions or exact constellation of what unfastened infinite should or should non hold but planing of unfastened infinite maintaining users psyche in foreground would decidedly give the hints for planing the socially sustainable unfastened infinites Safety and Regulation of use of infinite Puting things together after every chapterMentionsThe winning design – ‘The Defender of the City ‘ hypertext transfer protocol: //www.nottinghamcity.gov.uk/www/marketsquare/design.asp ( 2 -1-2010 4.30 autopsy )Gustafson Porter. ( 2008 ) . ‘the Guardian of the City ‘ . Available: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.gustafson-porter.com/intro.htm. Last accessed 3 Jan 2010 4.30am.Hackney Council. ( Mar 09 ) . Draft Interim Hackney Central Area Action Plan. Avilable: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.hackney.gov.uk/draft-hackney-central-masterplan-p102-mar09.pdf. Last accessed 3 Jan 2010 p114 )Andrew M. Manshel. ( 2009 ) . A Topographic point Is Better Than a Plan. Available: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.city-journal.org/2009/eon1019am.html. Last accessed 1 January 2010.Shaftoe. H ( 2008 ) . Convivial Urban Spaces: Making Effective Public Places. London: Earthscan.p. 51Lynch. K ( 1960 ) . The Image of the City. 15th erectile dysfunction. Cambridge: MI T Press. p2, 49,81.Lynch.K, Hack K ( 1984 ) . Site Planning. 3rd erectile dysfunction. Cambridge: MIT Press. P.157, 158Bacon E ( 1975 ) Design of Cities. Thames & A ; Hudson, LondonWorpole K and Greenhalgh L ( 1996 ) . The Freedom of the City. Demos: London. p14.Jacobs. J ( 1961 ) . The Death and Life of Great American Cities: The failure of town planning. 3rd Ed. New York: Random House. p88Gehl, J. ( 1987 ) Life between Buildings: Using public infinites, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold p. 2, 3, 85Walzer, M. ( 1986 ) ‘Public Space: Pleasures and Costss of Urbanity ‘ , Dissent 33, 4: 470-475.Rasmussen S.E ( 1959 ) . Experiencing Architecture. London: Chapman and Hall. P 33.Madanipour, A. ( 1997 ) . ‘Ambiguities of Urban Design ‘ , Town Planning Review. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. p 363-367.Gallacher P ( 2005 ) Everyday Spaces: The potency of neighbourhood infinite. Thomas Telford, London Edmund Bacon 1975( Lennard and Lennard 1995 p39 Carmel, CA: Go ndolier Press,  ©1995 )

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